Joya

New balance of power

The Ottoman political tradition was based on the power of the ruler and the central authority at home and expansion and conquest abroad. These elements, shaped by a government structure stemming from an aggressive, warlike tradition, underwent a number of changes in the course of the 18th century. The Ottoman Empire, which had been unaffected by the Renaissance and now found itself confronted by a Europe of steadily increasing power, was obliged to envisage a new system ofbalances on its western frontiers. The abortive Siege of Vienna (1683) was the harbinger of a new balance of power. As the era of expansion closed, a world outlook based on conquest was replaced by an approach characterised by a policy of peaceful diplomacy. The process of modernisation, which began in the 18th century and was to proceed sporadically for the next two hundred years, may well be regarded, in spite of certain errors and doubtful results, as an endeavour on the part of the Ottomans to realise a new system of balances in the world and, at the same time, as a struggle for survival.



The change and the modernization

Diplomacy

The increasingly powerful role played by the peaceful approach and its supporters in the güvernment constituted the first sign of an interest in Europe. Diplomatic relations now began to be established. Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi’s visit to France as special envoy of Sultan Ahmet III in 1721-22 may be regarded as the first step in this process. While in Paris, Mehmet Efendi visited the palaces, where he was welcomed with great pomp and circumstance, observed the training of infantry and artillery units, attended concerts specially arranged in his honour and sat to artists for his portrait. Çelebi’s visit was of more than purely diplomatic significante. It was also of great significance in the cultural sphere in strengthening the new ideas, then just appearing, on the training and equipment of the army. Throughout the 18th century, diplomatic relations were carried on by means of temporary missions. Although the official visits paid by Sait Pa?a to Paris (1742), Kozbekçi Mustafa to Sweden, Ahmet Resmi Efendi to Berlin (1763), Yusuf Agah to London (1792) and by Seyyid Ali Efendi to Paris (1789) were of great importance from the point of view of diplomatic and cultural relations, the Ottoman State was slow to realise the impotance of permanent relations, and it was only in 1792 that the first permanent ambassador was appointed and not until 1835 that the idea of permanent embassies was adopted.







Embassies

The European countries had led the way in this. Permanent embassies had been established in Istanbul by Venice in 1479, Poland in 1475, Russia in 1699, Sweden in 1735, France in 1525, Austria in 1538 and England in 1583.











Press







Industry









Development of the city











Da Vinci’s bridge project on the Golden Horn











Architecture













































Tanzimat

















Germany’s approach to the Ottomans







Education & Health









Communication & Transportation







Arts & Music











Some personalities of the period

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